Turkey and coal

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This article is part of the CoalSwarm coverage of Turkey and coal.
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Funding

Turkey's government actively supports coal power expansion and subsidizes new coal-fired power plants,[1] emphasizing increased mining of the country's widespread lignite coalfields as a way of minimizing imports of hard coal and natural gas.[2] Thus Turkey's energy strategy is inconsistent with its climate change strategy.[3] Coal power meets a third of Turkey's increasing electricity demand, and together with burning coal for heat makes up a quarter of Turkey's primary energy consumption.[4]

Mining

Coal fields

Turkey has only 500 million tonnes proven reserves of anthracite. Mining of this 'hard coal' is only done in the Zonguldak basin in the western Black Sea region and is underground and labor-intensive due to the very complex geology. In contrast most lignite mining is opencast and 15 billion tonnes of lignite are spread around Turkey,[5] and the Energy Ministry is prospecting for more.[6]

Coal mining

Turkey is the seventh largest coal producer in the world[7], almost all lignite. The insignificant hard coal mining is heavily subsidized:[5] in the public sector five hard coal deep mines are operated by Turkiye Taskomuru Kurumu Genel Mudurlu (TTK). Lignite is mined by state ownedTurkiye Komur lsletmesi Kurumu (TKI) in Afsin-Elbistan in southeast Anatolia and by the public sector electricity generator EÜAŞ, but most lignite is mined by private companies.[4] And most coal mining employment is in the private sector: in 2017, according to the General Directorate of Mining, in over 400 workplaces.[8]

In 2017 over 80 million tons were mined, 90 million tons are predicted for 2018 and the target for 2019 is 100 million tons; with an ultimate goal of 150-200 million tons,[9] almost all lignite. Amongst the proposed lignite mines in Turkey those in Thrace, Eskişehir and Afyon would be underground; whereas those in Konya and Karamanmaraş would be opencast.[10] Tenders for several coal mines are being held during 2018.[11]

Deaths

Mining

From 2000 to 2014 almost 100 miners died in accidents every year on average, and most mining accidents occur in coal mines.[12] Per GWh of electricity generated Turkey's mines are the most dangerous in the world[13] and unlike other countries fatality rates are not decreasing[14] In 2017 inspections were stepped up[15] but there were still deaths in illegal mines.[16] Worker death statistics are no longer published by the government and ILO safety standards will not be implemented until 2020.[17]

Air pollution

Despite the dangers of PM2.5 there is no legal limit on its emission.[18] About 2800 people die prematurely every year because of coal, most from lung and heart diseases.[19] In 2018 at least 500kg of coal is being given to each poor family.[20] The Chamber of Environmental Engineers is calling for natural gas, instead of poor quality coal, to be provided as support to poor locals.[21]

Injury and illness

4300 hospital admissions annually are estimated to be due to air pollution from coal.[22]

Health Impact Assessment

Although there is no legal requirement for a health impact assessment during power plant licensing, campaigners may try to use a 2017 case regarding nuclear power as a precedent for coal plants.[18]

Public Opinion

Climate change is not on the political agenda but most Turks prefer renewable energy to coal.[23] Although the public mainly prioritizes the cost of energy concern about its environmental impact is rising.[24]

Laws and policies

According to article 56 of the constitution: "Everyone has the right to live in a healthy and balanced environment. It is the duty of the State and citizens to improve the natural environment, to protect the environmental health and to prevent environmental pollution."[25]

The government's policies on renewables and domestic coal aim to reduce its considerable expenditure on energy imports.[26] Coal supplies over one quarter of Turkey's primary energy including about one third of its electricity.[4] While the government continues to flag its desire to have a massive expansion in coal,[9] some MPs and analysts are unpersuaded. Opposition MPs debating in 2016 complained that Turkish coal plants would receive large public subsidies and exemptions from environmental regulations.[27]

There are also risks that the government will lock itself into expensive power purchase agreements from privately owned plants: for example power from Çayırhan-B will cost 60USD per MWh for 15 years.[28] In 2018 TETAŞ (the state-owned wholesale company which takes up previously stranded costs) will pay over 200 lira per MWh.[29]

The national energy and mining policy (Milli Enerji ve Maden Politikası), announced in April 2017 by Energy and Natural Resources Minister Berat Albayrak, promotes clean coal[30] with the coal industry. In late 2017 the minister said that "By expanding the purchase guarantee, feed-in-tariff, we will start using the long-term incentive and support mechanism for local coal".[31]

The ministry, under the slogan and hashtag #BizimKömürümüzBizimEnerjimiz (our coal our energy)[32], aims by 2023 (the 100th anniversary of the republic) to have increased the coal-fired installed electricity generation capacity from the current level of 17 GW to 30 GW; [33] including 25GW lignite-fired.[34]

In July 2017 opposition MPs requested a parliamentary enquiry into the health and environmental effects of the large number of coal-fired power stations planned and under construction.[35][36]

International opinion

Turkey's policy negatively affects its reputation in the world[37] and may affect future negotiations of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and at the G20.[38]

Employment

Renewable energy employs more people than coal. In 2017, according to the General Directorate of Mining, about 38,000 people were employed in coal mining, mostly by private companies.[8] In total about one thousand people are employed per million tons annual production of domestic coal (80 millon tons were produced in 2017), according to the ministry;[2] whereas 94,000 people worked in renewable energy in 2017.[39]

During installation of a solar power plant, a workforce of 33 people per megawatt is required, and 10 workers per megawatt are needed during the production phase; so solar power could create 180,000 jobs by 2023.[40]

Although central government attempted to assist Zonguldak around the turn of the century, unlike in neighboring Greece there is no current organized high level political or economic support to help regions transition away from dependence on coal.[41]

Economics

Limiting global warming would benefit the economy[42] and the balance of trade, by limiting water stress and its effect on agriculture and food production.[43]

Subsidies

Coal is subsidized via: transfer payments from the Treasury, investment incentives for coal extraction, and electricity generation from coal-fired power plants, R&D support, subsidies for mineral exploration, improvement financing for coal mines and coal-fired power plants, investment guarantees, price and electricity purchase guarantees, coal aid to the poor, and other direct and indirect supports[44][1], totaling 260-300 million dollars a year.[45][46] These amount to about 0.01 USD per kWh (0.02 USD if coal support to poor families is included).[47] TETAŞ is the Turkish government owned wholesale company which takes up the stranded costs of domestic coal plants. In 2018 the base budget for the capacity mechanism alone (coal and gas) was 1.4 billion lira, however the 2018 formula stipulates increases depending on inflation and the USD exchange rate[48] so the final capacity mechanism total may be around 2 billion lira.[45]

Capacity Mechanism: comparison with other European countries

Because wind or solar power is not always available when needed, some countries or regions with a high proportion of it use a capacity mechanism (also known as a capacity market) which should remunerate other electricity generators and other capacity providers, such as demand response operators, for being available in case of need.[49]

For example in Britain, with its many wind turbines, wind and solar might be providing half the required power at midday in spring but very little during a dull, still winter week. The British capacity mechanism auctions meet the need for flexibility by paying some gas plants, but also nuclear, interconnectors, demand side response and distributed generation.[50] Turkey is not yet close to the solar power percentage of Spain, which includes hydropower in its capacity payments.[51]

In contrast the Turkish capacity mechanism is not an auction but payments are determined by an EMRA formula. It is operated by TEIAS and does not fund any of Turkey's many flexible hydro plants or any interconnectors or demand response; although its currently stated aim is to establish sufficient installed capacity, including reserve capacity, for the supply of electricity security in the electricity market.[52] Instead Turkey has been compared to Poland and its capacity mechanism is accused of being a subsidy of fossil fuels.[53] In 2018 most large coal (including newer imported coal and also newer gas plants despite the 2016 law prioritizing local resources[54]), but no other plants are eligible for payments via the capacity mechanism,[55] and the need for it has been questioned.[56]

Costs

In addition to current healthcare costs extra are expected in future due to climate change.[57] And if Turkey's pollution regulations were improved to the EU Industrial Emissions Directive then removal of SO2 alone could cost between 75 and 100 million euros for each coal plant.[58]

Financing

In 2017 $1.56 billion was spent on 320MW capacity imported coal power plants that also commenced generating power that year.[59]

As of 2017 Turkey intends to spend $14 billion for coal mining development and coal-fired power plants by 2023 (the centennial of the Turkish Republic).[60]

A local energy analyst writes in 2018 that international financial institutions will not invest:[61] however BBVA, a Spanish bank, may continue to do so,[62] and as of 2018 Chinese investment and loans for new coal plants continue.[63]

According to a 2017 analysis from İş Bankası the 30 year USD based government purchase guarantee encourages domestic banks to loan to projects which would burn local coal.[64] Turkish banks have financed 9GW of coal power plant capacity:[46] for example Garanti Bank has made many loans to coal projects over the years and, as of 2018, continues to offer finance.

Stranded Assets

Newer coal-fired power stations in Turkey risk becoming stranded assets[65][66] because according to the United Nations Environment Programme "Closing the emissions gap requires that these plants run with lower capacity rates, and are phased out before the end of their lifetime, and/or retrofitted with CCS facilities."[67]

Legislation

Energy Minister Albayrak said in August 2017 that filtering systems would be completed based on the latest environmental criterion in all of Turkey's existing old plants by 2019 and that all power plants to be built from August 2017 on will be in line with EU standards.[68] However currently Law 27605 regulates pollution (except CO2) from power plants, but not down to the limits of the EU Industrial Emissions Directive[58], and those EU limits will be reduced in 2021.[69] Formerly all applications for a pre-licence for over 300MW (and some smaller)[18] had to first obtain an EIA decision[70] however now state owned and privatized generation plants do not have to comply with environmental legislation until end 2019.[71] Academics have suggested an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) for operational plants.[72]

EMRA has 20 business days to evaluate an application for a preliminary license, often referred to as a pre-license.[70] Pre-licenses can be extended up to 3 years.[73]

Opponents claim that the “urgent expropriation law” has been used excessively by the current government to secure land to fast-track energy and development projects.[74]

Environmental Impact

Data from continuous monitoring of flue stack emissions is not published on the internet.[18]

Ash

Turkey's lignite coal produces a high proportion of ash, and opponents claim that toxic elements in the ash have polluted air and soil and could leak into groundwater.[74]

Water

Over 70% of the water consumed for electricity generation in 2016 was used by coal-fired power plants, mostly due to the use of wet cooling towers.[75] Some plants, such as Soma Kolin and Çan-2, are being constructed in high water stressed areas. Konya Karapınar power station has been proposed for an extremely water stressed area.[76] If carbon capture and storage (CCS) was used in future this would require much more freshwater.[77]

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions

See also Turkey and climate change.

Because the lignite burnt in Turkey's coal-fired power stations produces more CO2 per kWh electricity generated than most other types of coal, and almost all hard coal is imported and thus incurs emissions from shipping; for every kWh generated in Turkey by coal over 1kg of CO2 is emitted.[78] Coal's share of Turkey's total greenhouse gas emissions of about 500 million tons[79] is about a third.[80] Averaging 6 tons per person per year in total[81] (and predicted to overtake the EU average soon[82]) thus about 2 tons per person per year is from coal, amounting to 154 million tons in 2016.[83] Turkey's climate is already changing[84] and the impact will be felt across the country.[85] Overall, Turkey emits 1% of the world's greenhouse gas, 1/3 from coal.[86] Plants over 20MW are required to report their CO2 emissions to the government but not to the public.[87]

Carbon Market

The IEA has suggested that Turkey should have a carbon market,[88] but despite some voluntary carbon trading [89] there is a lack of political will for the necessary legislation.[90] A carbon tax would also be a viable option but subsidies provided for high carbon fossil fuel sources in the country, such as lignite, would first have to be reduced. [91]

Sulfur

In June 2018 the government was reported to be considering increasing the amount of sulfur allowed in imported thermal coal from 1%-2% to 3%.[92]

Building heating

Low grade lignite pollutes city air: every year about 10 million tons[46] of coal is burnt to heat older buildings, even in urban areas, where natural gas is available.

Industry

Steel

5.4m tonnes of coking coal and 0.7m tonnes of anthracite were imported in 2015 to use in steel production.[93] As well as using coal for heat to make steel some companies; such as Kardemir, İsken and Çolakoğlu; have coal-fired power stations at their steelworks.

Cement

4m tonnes of petcoke and 3m tonnes of coal were imported in 2015 to use in cement production[94] and the cement sector emitted 32 million tons of CO2.[95]

Sugar

There are also many small coal-fired power stations at sugar factories.[46]

Electricity generation

Only a quarter of Turkey's primary energy needs are met from domestic resources and the country is heavily dependent on imports of oil and gas.[96] However hydropower is flexible and can supply over half of the 50GW peak electricity demand.[97] Turkey generates about 300TWh per year.[98] Lignite and hard-coal fired power stations between them account for 22% of the installed capacity of the electricity generation system.[99] Approximately 30% of the coal used for power generation is imported,[2] from countries such as Russia.[100] The electricity market is an oligopoly with TETAŞ and EÜAŞ producing about 40% of Turkey's electricity,[101] and the government sets the end-user electricity price.[3] The Turkish government is attempting to privatise some of the few remaining state owned coal-fired power stations.

Coal Free Turkey

For more details, see Alternatives to coal in Turkey.

Currently about one third of Turkey's electricity is generated from coal, one third from natural gas, a quarter from hydro, and small amounts from solar, wind, geothermal and biogas;[99] however hydropower can vary considerably from year to year depending on the weather. Mainly by taking advantage of Turkey's enormous solar energy potential and using more wind power, Turkey's energy needs could be met without using coal.[102] This would increase employment and be cheaper in the long-term.[103][82]

Electricity transmission

On average electricity is transmitted from the east of the country to the west. Sometimes power plants in Anatolia are curtailed and compensated due to transmission limitations on the European side of Istanbul.[104]. Lack of grid connectivity in suitable areas is hampering expansion of wind power.[64]

Existing coal-fired power plants

In 2017 over $1.5 billion was invested in plant to burn imported coal, adding 1,320 megawatts of installed capacity.[105] Power from coal doubled over the ten years to 2018[18] and now the 40 coal-fired plants[99] generate a third of Turkey's electricity[4], 92TWh in 2016.[106] Coal-fired power stations in Turkey which burn hard coal are generally near the coast as almost all hard coal is imported,[107] whereas those burning lignite are near coal fields.

Environmental problems and protests at existing plants

Activists board one of the world's largest coal platforms at Botas Oil Terminal, stopping barges from importing coal to the Sugozu (Isken) coal fired power plant.
  • Yatağan power station: Constructed in 1976, this 630 MW power plant lacked a functioning waste-gas filtering system for 30 years. According to one press report, thousands of local residents filed complaints, and the trials linked to the plant became "one of the staple cases at the European Court of Human Rights."[108] The plant has long been considered a blight on the scenic Aegean coast[109] and local people continue to protest that it has damaged their health and olive groves.[110]
  • Afşin-Elbistan power complex: A plant in Kahramanmaraş province operated without a purification system for 20 years, damaging local agriculture and leading to complaints from local citizens. [108]
  • Sugozu power station: In September 2008, four climbers from Greenpeace's Rainbow Warrior were arrested after they occupied a giant coal loading platform to prevent a delivery of coal to this coal plant, which emits 10 million tonnes of carbon dioxide annually.[111]

Coal-fired power stations financed by international public investment institutions

Coal-fired power stations which have been financed by international public investment institutions include the Afsin-Elbistan power complex.[112]

Proposed coal plants

"Let our lovely Gerze stay lovely. We don't want a thermal power plant to come to our Gerze..."

Turkey is planning and constructing new coal plants to be fired by local lignite mines in Thrace,[34] Eskişehir, Afyonkarahisar, Kahramanmaraş, Bartin and other provinces. However Gerze power station was cancelled after strong local opposition and opposition to coal in Turkey remains determined.

Anadolu Enerji and Hattat Holding Energy Group are two of the companies involved, and more companies are due to be selected during 2018.

Articles and resources

Notes

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 "Fossil Fuel Support - TUR", OECD, accessed June 2018.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Turkey to make full use of domestic coal to minimize imports, Daily Sabah, Nov 6, 2017.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Turkey 2018 Report p92, European Commission, 17 April 2018
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 "Coal," Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Country profile: Turkey, Euracoal, accessed June 2018
  6. ↑ Yerli kömürde atılım dönemi, Sabah, Mar 26, 2018.
  7. ↑ ‘Turkey has surrendered to energy lobbies,’ says CHP leader Kılıçdaroğlu, Hürriyet Daily News, Mar 25, 2018.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Taşkömürü ve linyit sektoründe işyeri ve işci sayaları, Maden İşleri Genel Müdürlüğü website, accessed March 2018
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Enerji ve Tabii Kaynaklar ve Bakan Berat Albayrak:, HaberTurk, 5 June 2018
  10. ↑ "Turkey’s coal-fired visions," Lexology
  11. ↑ Turkey ‘aims to hold tenders for at least five coal mines in 2018’, Hürriyet Daily News, 10 April 2018
  12. ↑ Turkey's mining safety: a bleak track record, BBC, May 15, 2014.
  13. ↑ Turkey long a graveyard for miners, Hürriyet Daily News, May 14, 2014.
  14. ↑ TEPAV (2016), p. 16
  15. ↑ Energy Ministry boosts inspections in mines, Hürriyet Daily News, Nov 18, 2017.
  16. ↑ Death and coal of the poor come from the same source, Hürriyet Daily News, Oct 20, 2017.
  17. ↑ Şahin (2016), p. 36-37
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 Toolkit: Coal Power Generation and Health in Three Regions of Turkey; Çanakkale, İzmir and Tekirdağ, Health and environment alliance - Heal, January 2018.
  19. ↑ Jenson (2014), p. 6
  20. ↑ 500 kilo kömür yardımı verilecek, Sabah, Jan 9, 2018.
  21. ↑ Environmental chamber warns of rising air pollution levels across Turkey, Hürriyet Daily News, Jan 5, 2018.
  22. ↑ Şahin (2016), p. 36
  23. ↑ "83% of Turks favour renewable energy over coal, survey finds", Climate Home News, 5 June 2018
  24. ↑ "Turkish consumers believe high costs top problem in energy sector: Opinion poll", Hürriyet Daily News, Mar 21, 2018.
  25. ↑ "Constitution of the Republic of Turkey", Parliament website, accessed 23 May 2018
  26. ↑ "Half of Turkey's energy generated from local resources", Daily Sabah, April 19, 2018.
  27. ↑ Arthur Neslen, "Turkish coal plants in line for public subsidies", Guardian, Sept 6, 2016.
  28. ↑ "Kolin-Kalyon-Celikler win Cayirhan privatization tender", Anadolu Ajans, Feb 6, 2017.
  29. ↑ "TETAŞ'ın kömür santrallerinden alacağı elektrik fiyatı belirlendi", Memleket, Dec 2, 2017.
  30. ↑ "Invest in clean coal by 2019: President of Coal Manuf.", Anadolu Agency, 9 April 2018
  31. ↑ "Turkey's domestic energy market to expand through alternative derivatives", Daily Sabah, 3 Nov 2017
  32. ↑ ÖZGÜR GÜRBÜZ, "Bizim kömürümüz bizim zehrimiz", BirGün, 6 November 2017
  33. ↑ “Energy and Renewables”, Invest in Turkey
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 "Domestic coal reserves to promote Turkish economic growth," Daily Sabah, June 24, 2017
  35. ↑ “Termik Santrallere ilişkin Araştırma Önergemiz”, HDP website, retrieved Jan 2018
  36. ↑ “Termik Santrallere ilişkin Araştırma Önergemiz”, parliament website, 18 July 2017
  37. ↑ "Coal-fired power plants: Europe shuts them down but we keep building them", Hürriyet Daily News, Feb 1, 2018.
  38. ↑ “Reports of coal's terminal decline may be exaggerated”, Environmental Research Letters, 7 Feb. 2018
  39. ↑ Renewable Energy and Jobs – Annual Review 2017, International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA)
  40. ↑ Solar power to create 180,000 jobs in Turkey by 2023, Daily Sabah, Aug 31, 2017.
  41. ↑ Cumhurbaşkanı Erdoğan'dan ‘Yerli Kömür' Açıklaması, Milliyet, 5 June 2018
  42. ↑ "Hitting toughest climate target will save world $30tn in damages, analysis shows," Guardian, 23 May 2018
  43. ↑ "Climate change and agriculture: an integrated approach to evaluate economy-wide effects for Turkey," Climate and Development Volume 10, 2018 - Issue 3
  44. ↑ Şahin (2018), p. 37
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 "Fosil yakıtlar hızla ucuzlayan rüzgar ve güneş enerjisiyle yarışamıyor," Hürriyet, 16 Feb 2018
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 46.2 46.3 "Coal & Climate Change - 2017," Önder Algedik, Aug 2017
  47. ↑ Şahin (2016), p. 8
  48. ↑ "Elektrik Piyasası Kapasite Mekanizmasına İlişkin Duyurular," EMRA, accessed early May 2018 but now removed from EMRA website
  49. ↑ "Final Report of the Sector Inquiry on Capacity Mechanisms ," European Commission, 30 Nov 2016
  50. ↑ "Capacity Market auction results," KPMG, 12 Feb 2018
  51. ↑ "Power-Industry Transition, Here and Now," Institute for Energy Economics and Financial Analysis (IEEFA), Feb 2018
  52. ↑ "ELEKTRİK PİYASASI KAPASİTE MEKANİZMASI YÖNETMELİĞİ," Resmî Gazete Issue:30307 Article 1 and Article 6 Clause 2) h), 20 Jan 2018
  53. ↑ "Comment: Turkey, Poland - How politics damage energy markets," ICIS, 17 Aug 2017
  54. ↑ [http://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2016/09/20160907-1.htm "YATIRIMLARIN PROJE BAZINDA DESTEKLENMESİ İLE BAZI KANUN VE KANUN HÜKMÜNDE KARARNAMELERDE DEĞİŞİKLİK YAPILMASINA DAİR KANUN: MADDE 75,"] Resmî Gazete omnibus bill 6745, Article 75, 7 Sep 2016
  55. ↑ "KAPASİTE MEKANİZMASI BAŞVURULARININ DEĞERLENDİRİLMESİ," TEİAŞ, Jan 2018
  56. ↑ "Türkiye’de Elektrik Piyasası Kapasite Mekanizması Ekonomi İçin Gerekli Mi?," Ekolojist, 2 Mar 2018
  57. ↑ Jensen (2017), p. 44
  58. ↑ 58.0 58.1 "Turkey’s Compliance with the Industrial Emissions Directive," tepav, 2015.
  59. ↑ "Turkey invested $6.2B in power generation in 2017," Daily Sabah, 8 Mar. 2018.
  60. ↑ "Turkey - Energy-Prospects-and-Mining Renewables- Smart Grid-Gas-Power Generation," U.S. Commercial Service Turkey, September 26, 2017
  61. ↑ Haluk DireskeneliTurkey: Project Finance Is Getting Too difficult For Thermal Power Plants – OpEd," Eurasia Review, January 23, 2018
  62. ↑ "This Major Bank Just Pledged To Invest $122 Billion In Renewables" Oilprice, 3 March 2018
  63. ↑ "Why new coal in Turkey and the Balkans will test China’s and EU’s climate leadership" Euractiv, 19 June 2018
  64. ↑ 64.0 64.1 "ELEKTRİK ÜRETİMİ SEKTÖRÜ: İKTİSADİ ARAŞTIRMALAR BÖLÜMÜ," İş Bankası, August 2017
  65. ↑ [https://www.enbausa.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Downloads/IRENA_REmap_Stranded_assets_and_renewables_2017.pdf "STRANDED ASSETS AND RENEWABLES"] International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), 2017
  66. ↑ Şahin (2018), p. 44
  67. ↑ "The Emissions Gap Report 2017 page 39" United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
  68. ↑ "Turkey's new-generation thermal power plants to maximize efficiency, minimize environmental impact," Daily Sabah, 13 Aug 2017
  69. ↑ "[http://ieefa.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Europe-Coal-Fired-Plants_Rough-Times-Ahead_May-2017.pdf Europe’s Coal-Fired Power Plants: Rough Times Ahead]," IEEFA, May 2017
  70. ↑ 70.0 70.1 "Turkey changes electricity market licensing procedures," Lexology, January 18 2016
  71. ↑ "Changes to the Electricity Law to Foster Growth," Lexology, January 3 2018
  72. ↑ "Environmental impact assessment of coal power plants in operation ," E3S Web of Conferences 22, 00011 (2017)
  73. ↑ "A short guide for foreign investors in Turkish electricity market," Deloitte’, January 2016
  74. ↑ 74.0 74.1 Gökçe Şencan, "The AKP’s dirty relationship with coal," Independent Turkey, April 10, 2017.
  75. ↑ "Balkess D. J. EL-KHOZONDAR,INVESTIGATING THE USE OF WATER FOR ELECTRICITY GENERATION AT TURKISH POWER PLANTS page 84," Hacettepe University, 2017.
  76. ↑ "[https://www.greenpeace.org/archive-international/Global/international/publications/climate/2016/The-Great-Water-Grab.pdf The Great Water Grab: How the Coal Industry is Deepening the Global Water Crisis]," Greenpeace, March 2016.
  77. ↑ "Environment Agency warns of serious water deficits for England," BBC, 23 May 2018
  78. ↑ Burcin Atilgan and Adisa Azapagic, "[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2016.02.055 An integrated life cycle sustainability assessment of electricity generation in Turkey (page 117)]," Energy Policy 93 (2016) 168–186
  79. ↑ Turkey's greenhouse gas emissions up 4.4% in 2016," Anadolu Agency, 13 April 2018
  80. ↑ Şahin (2016), p. 7
  81. ↑ Seragazı emisyonları 475,1 Mt CO2 eşdeğerine yükseldi," Turkish Statistical Institute, April 27, 2017.
  82. ↑ 82.0 82.1 Carbon Brief Profile: Turkey," Carbon Brief, 3 May 2018
  83. ↑ "CO2 emissions," Global Carbon Atlas
  84. ↑ How does the global climate change affect the climate of Turkey?," CLIMATE CHANGE IN TURKEY, accessed Feb. 2018
  85. ↑ "Temperature to increase significantly in Turkey in 30 years due to global warming, warns climate expert," Hürriyet Daily News, 19 March 2018.
  86. ↑ Şahin (2016), p. 7
  87. ↑ SERA GAZI EMİSYONLARININ TAKİBİ HAKKINDA YÖNETMELİK," Resmî Gazete Issue 29003, 17 May 2014
  88. ↑ Energy Policy of Turkey 2016 review, IEA
  89. ↑ "State of the Voluntary Carbon Markets 2017," Forest Trends’ Ecosystem Marketplace, May 2017.
  90. ↑ "Roadmap for the consideration of establishment and operation of a Greenhouse Gas Emissions Trading System in Turkey," Ecofys, 2016.
  91. ↑ Gökşin Bavbek,"Adopting a Carbon Tax in Turkey: Main Considerations," EDAM Energy and Climate Change Climate Action Paper Series 2016/3, Oct 2016.
  92. ↑ Turkish lira, regulations weigh on thermal coal buying: sources," Platts, 8 June 2018
  93. ↑ Schernikau (2016), p. 209
  94. ↑ Schernikau (2016), p. 209
  95. ↑ 2015 Envanteri: Türkiye iklimi değiştirecek!,Gazete Duvar, April 19 2017
  96. ↑ TURKEY’S ENERGY PROFILE AND STRATEGY, Ministry of Foreign Affairs
  97. ↑ PANEL - "TÜRKİYE'DE TERMİK SANTRALLER VE ZONGULDAK", tmmob, 21 November 2017
  98. ↑ AK Parti Seçim Beyannamesi'nden enerji ve madencilik:, Haberturk, 24 May 2018
  99. ↑ 99.0 99.1 99.2 "Electricity," Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources
  100. ↑ New Black Sea coal terminal potentially delayed until 2019: sources, Platts, 12 Jan 2018
  101. ↑ "Impact of Vertical Integration on Electricity Prices in Turkey," International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy,2017 Vol 7 Issue 3
  102. ↑ "Kilickaplan, Anil & Bogdanov, Dmitrii & Peker, Bülent & Caldera, Upeksha & Aghahosseini, Arman & Breyer, Christian.", "An energy transition pathway for Turkey to achieve 100% renewable energy powered electricity, desalination and non-energetic industrial gas demand sectors by 2050," Researchgate, 2017.
  103. ↑ Teske (2015), ch. 6
  104. ↑ Spot elektrik piyasasında işlem yapan 15 elektrik santralinde üretim kesintisi yaşandı, Milliyet, 26 December 2017
  105. ↑ "Turkey adds 5,840 MW of power capacity in 2017," Anadolu Agency, 8 March 2018
  106. ↑ About Turkish Mining, Mining Turkey, accessed April 2018.
  107. ↑ "Solid Fuels, August 2017" Turkish Statistical Institute, October 26, 2017
  108. ↑ 108.0 108.1 108.2 Serkan Ocak, "Coal's firepower to rule on coasts," Hurriyet DailyNews.com, accessed December 23, 2011
  109. ↑ Huseyin Kandemir and Debbie Lovatt, "Plant Fumes in Power Vacuum" Gemini News Service, July 13, 2001
  110. ↑ "Yatağan'da çevrecilerden kömür ocağına karşı eylem" Hürriyet, October 30, 2017
  111. ↑ "Coal shipment stopped in Turkey," Greenpeace International, September 15, 2008
  112. ↑ "Coal Fired Plants Financed by International Public Investment Institutions since 1994", Appendix A in Foreclosing the Future: Coal, Climate and International Public Finance: Investment in coal-fired power plants hinders the fight against global warming, Environmental Defense, April 2009.

References

  • Schernikau, Lars (2016). Economics of the International Coal Trade: Why Coal Continues to Power the World (2nd ed.). New York: Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-46555-5. 
  • Sivaram, Varun (2018). Taming the Sun: Innovation to Harness Solar Energy and Power the Planet. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-03768-6. 

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